The Hidden Needle & The Shining Knife

Both Voltaire’s Candide (translated by Lowell Bair) and Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” reveal the absurdity of certain ways of thinking through the use of satire. While Voltaire’s Candide ridicules the belief that everything happens for the better, Swift’s proposal attacks the irrational attitude of the English towards the Irish and their situation. Voltaire’s manipulation of satirical devices gives Candide a lighthearted, Horatian tone whereas Swift’s incorporation of these satirical devices gives “A Modest Proposal” a more brutal, Juvenalian tone. Although Voltaire and Swift manipulate satirical devices in opposing methods, both of their works, as Alexander Pope noted, slice entirely through the neck of the reader, leaving the head in place. In the end, it is not the Horatian or Juvenalian nature of the satires that makes these works striking, but rather it is the fact that the author’s point in both satires is successfully communicated and emphasized to the reader.

Voltaire’s use of euphemism often creates an amusing atmosphere in line with the Horatian style of his satire, whereas Swift’s Juvenalian employment of this device elicits a sense of disgust in the reader. Though Swift and Voltaire employ euphemism in contrasting ways, both methods are “extremely sharp” as they are able to attack the subject matter. Throughout his satire, Voltaire utilizes euphemisms for sex as well as sexually transmitted diseases. After Lady Cunegonde observes Pangloss and Paquette having intercourse, “she then returned home, agitated and thoughtful, reflecting that she might be young Candide’s sufficient reason and, he hers” (Voltaire 16). The use of the theoretical term “sufficient reason” to replace the explicit sexual wonderings of Lady Cunegonde provokes a wry smile on the reader’s face and follows the Horatian sense of dry humor. Though Voltaire’s euphemism is accompanied by subtle humor, his use of this satirical device still pierces the reader by demonstrating the ridiculousness of the isolated world Lady Cunegonde lives in: a world in which sex is justified through philosophy. Furthermore, by pinpointing to the reader how the world that Lady Cunegonde lives in is illogical, Voltaire stunningly attacks the philosophy that is intertwined with this world: that everything happens for the better. On the other hand, Swift’s use of jargon (euphemism) is brutal, cold, and is not accompanied by humor. When explaining his proposal, Swift says, “I am assured by our merchants that a boy or a girl before twelve years old is no salable commodity” (Swift). Swift uses the pleasant words “salable commodity” to replace an atrocious, systematic practice of murdering humans to obtain profit. Swift’s use of euphemism “slices through the neck” as it stunningly conveys the absurdity of neglecting fellow human beings. Though on the surface, Voltaire’s euphemism does not seem as harsh as that of Swifts, both are able to make clear the absurdity of the subject they are ridiculing. It is because of the striking method by which both authors employ euphemism to highlight the absurdity of the subject matter that makes both of these satires effective.  

Voltaire and Swift both manipulate situational irony to aid in ridiculing their subject matter. Though Swift’s ridiculing through situational irony is more obvious and may appear sharper at first look, Voltaire’s attacks are just as effective. After being banned from the castle of Baron Thunder-ten-Tronckh, Candide meets two Bulgarian soldiers who offer to pay for his food and give him money. These soldiers tell him that “men are made only to help each other” (Voltaire 17). At this point, the reader is made to feel as if the soldiers will in fact come to the aid of Candide. However, instead of helping Candide, the men imprison him as a soldier for a lord he is unaware of. During his time with the army, Candide suffers constantly from getting beatings to having to run the gauntlet twenty-six times. The large incongruity of the events in this example of situational irony causes there to be humorous vibes. Furthermore, it flows with the Horatian style of the novel. The humorous vibes, however, do not dilute the effectiveness of this piece. In fact, through the use of this situational irony, Voltaire demeans the optimistic philosophy Pangloss believes in. Voltaire does this by showing how Candide’s encounter with the soldiers who implied they would help him was not beneficial, but rather a miserable experience. Similarly, Swift uses situational irony is striking as well. When explaining his proposal, Swift states, “There is likewise another great advantage in my scheme, that it will prevent those voluntary abortions, and that horrid practice of women murdering their bastard children, alas! Too frequent among us! Sacrificing the poor innocent babe” (Swift). This is situational irony because one would expect that Swift’s proposal would stray from “sacrificing poor innocent babes” but it does just that. In fact, Swift’s proposal takes this a step further as it offers a systematic, incentive-filled, planned method of killing babies. This irony, unlike Voltaire’s use, is more Juvenalian as it does not bring a “wry smile” to one’s face, but rather does the opposite. Though Swift’s use of situational irony strikes through the neck of the reader in broad daylight, Voltaire’s situational irony does so as well while being hidden in the shadows. Nonetheless, the use of situational irony even in different styles in both is effective in making clear the absurdity of ideas and ways of thinking.

Voltaire’s Horatian styled employment of grotesque is just as effective as Swift’s Juvenalian use of grotesque. This is because like Swift’s, it invokes a revolting response from the reader while simultaneously further ridiculing the subject matter. Voltaire utilizes grotesque when describing Lady Cunegonde’s appearance after Candied finally reunites with her: “When Candide, the tender lover, saw his fair Cunegonde’s weather-beaten face, blood-shot eyes, withered breasts, wrinkled cheeks and red scaly arms, he recoiled three paces in horror, but then stepped forward out of politeness” (Voltaire 108). The grotesque appearance of Lady Cunegonde is evident not only through Voltaire’s vivid imagery, but also by the fact that Candide is naturally compelled to recoil. This example of grotesque contains a Horatian mask as it creates a sardonic atmosphere once the reader realizes that the treasure Candide had been seeking throughout the book ended up displeasing him. But hidden underneath this dry humor, Voltaire’s use of grotesque strikes a direct death blow to the optimistic philosophy by demonstrating that the course of events that Candide has had to endure has not made his life “better” at all. Swift’s use of grotesque, however, is more Juvenalian. In Swift’s proposal, he states, “I rather recommend buying the children alive, dressing them hot from the knife, as do roasting pigs” (Swift). Swift’s mere mentioning of cooking children insights horrifying, vivid imagery that pierces the reader with disgust. The comparison to “roasting pigs” furthers the Juvenalian nature of this device, and simultaneously out rightly attacks the British for being ignorant towards the Irish situation. Though Swift’s Juvenalian employment of grotesque is evidently “extremely sharp,” Voltaire’s Horatian styled grotesque achieves the same effect once one unveils the mask of subtle humor.

Both Candide and A Modest Proposal mock certain styles of thinking as well as human follies through the use of satirical devices. Though the method by which satirical devices are employed in Candide is Horatian while in A Modest Proposal it is Juvenalian, both authors are able to fulfill Alexander Pope’s expectations of a dominating, effective satire. In the end, Voltaire’s Horatian styled satire is a needle hidden in the shadows that is “extremely sharp” whereas Swifts satire is a shining dagger in the bright daylight. Sometimes, a hidden needle can hurt as much as a knife, resounding the cliché that things aren’t always what they seem on the surface.

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Over Thinking, Over Doing

Candide by Voltaire, translated by Lowell Bair, and “A Modest Proposal” by Jonathan Swift are both compelling satires that slice cleanly through their subjects just as Alexander Pope asserts. They mock opposite extremes of idle thinking and theorizing versus severe action; however, through their satirical devices they express the same message: society must arrive at the right level of thought and action in order to be beneficial to all.

Swift uses satirical devices in his “proposal” of cannibalizing babies to illustrate the direness of the situation, provoking indignation and action from the oppressed, but perhaps even more so, self-reflection and political reform among the entitled. When discussing the vast numbers of the poor in Ireland at the time, Swift uses a detached tone, seemingly distancing himself and the reader from the victims of poverty: “…I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand couple whose wives are breeders; from which number I subtract thirty thousand couples… there will remain an hundred and seventy thousand breeders” (Swift). The repeated use of statistics and numbers and the way Swift refers to women and mothers as “breeders” makes the passage impersonal and cold. But Swift describes the women whose children he is proposing to kill so impassively and with such lack of emotion that he conversely calls attention to the horror of this proposition. The gap in this essay where pathos and compassion should be highlights the injustice of current conditions and triggers motivation as a result. Swift also uses understatement in his proposal to force the British and even the passive bystanders of Irish destitution to think about what they were doing or what was happening around them. When extending his proposal even further to include adolescent girls in the meal plan, Swift writes: “…it is not improbable that some scrupulous people might be apt to censure such a practice (although indeed very unjustly), as a little bordering upon cruelty.” This extreme understatement that perhaps this proposal might be viewed as a little cruel is laughable and shocking to anyone, but would be especially sharp to those who had been ignoring or even promoting the oppression of the Irish, a crime not as evil as taking their lives, but which takes away their freedom and equality all the same. Through detached tone and understatement, Swift inspires a desire for change from those who were suffering and provokes thought and consideration from those who were at fault.

While Swift proposes preposterous action in order to get people thinking about the situation and take steps to change it, Voltaire portrays society in a rut of philosophizing at the expense of all action through certain satirical devices to encourage physical progress and warn against ineffectual speculating but also reckless impulsiveness. For instance, after being caught in bed with Lady Cunegonde by an Inquisitor and a Jew, Candide suddenly decides to murder them both, an action which appalls Cunegonde: “How could a gentle man like you kill a Jew and a prelate within two minutes of each other?” (Voltaire 36). This sudden stroke of violence is surprising and unexpected, an incongruity that doesn’t seem to fit, and consequently stands out to the reader. Candide’s impulsive behavior puts Cunegonde, the old women, and himself in a tight position where they are forced to flee immediately. With this incongruous killing spree, rash judgment does not escape Candide’s mockery, and neither does unproductive contemplation. Pangloss, the ultimate offender of foolish philosophizing, is beaten down again and again by Voltaire throughout Candide, but particularly in an ironic scene in which he nearly dies from a gruesome case of syphilis and is described as “… a beggar covered with sores; his eyes were lifeless, the tip of his nose had been eaten away, his mouth was twisted, his teeth were black, his voice was hoarse, he was racked by a violent cough, and he spat out a tooth with every spasm” (Voltaire 22). Here Voltaire uses situational irony to ridicule Pangloss’s theory of the best of all possible worlds by giving him the worst of all possible luck. This device not only makes Pangloss and his theory seem foolish, but philosophy in general.

            Both of these satires assume opposite positions on a scale from passive contemplation to uncompromising aggression to remind the public that both thinking and acting are equally significant values in a moral, productive society. They advocate a middle ground between violent action and meaningless theory, which, through clever satirical devices, is almost unknowingly adopted by the reader. In the real world things are neither black nor white and every issue has its complexities, therefore effective satire can never be a blunt instrument. It must, as Alexander Pope suggests, be a sharp and sly weapon by which the reader does not even realize their mind is being changed, until it is too late. It is human nature to act and to think but, as Candide and “A Modest Proposal” craftily exhibit, it is the balance between the two that holds society together.

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As Alexander Pope implied in his observation, good satire should be sharp and critical, being able to concisely portray what it is mocking. Yet at the same time, it should be able to keep the reader entertained and not dissatisfied. Both Voltaire’s Candide and Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” use engaging outlandish stories and a variety of satirical devices to humorously criticize specific aspects of society, instead of bluntly declaring their disgust.

Blind innocence has an important role in both writings of Voltaire and Swift. It is because of this purity that tarnishes are more noticeably seen. The main character in Candide is a polite and educated gentleman who grew up surrounded by philosophy and optimism. He has never realized the harshness of reality until he is ripped from his peaceful castle and shoved into the dark streets of Germany. There Candide gets into many troubling situations due to his inexperience in a violent society. For example, when he is recruited into a training camp for an upcoming war, Candide simply walks out to take a stroll, “believing that the free use of the legs was a privilege of both mankind and the animals” (Voltaire 19). This naïve way of thinking had him branded as a traitor and flogged. Similarly, the narrator in “A Modest Proposal” is innocent and oblivious to the morality of the general public. “… a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled” he says (Swift). The narrator is more concerned about the way a baby is prepared than the reaction a person will get from committing cannibalism. These are examples of dramatic irony, since the reader is aware of details behind-the-scene. Despite any initial outrage, this satirical device lets the reader sympathize with or pity the character’s ignorance and wince about the aspect of the betrayal and cannibalism that exists in the world. Yet, due to our prior knowledge, we are also forced to laugh and shake our heads at how silly the character is, “leaving the head in place” as Alexander Pope observed. Both Candide and Swift’s narrator look at the world through a newborn’s eyes, revealing the deeper political and moral truths in society from any foreigner’s or growing child’s perspective.

Optimism is another thing mocked along with ignorance. Voltaire creates the character Pangloss as a parody of Leibneiz. Pangloss constantly reminds the reader of Leibniz’s “best of all worlds,” yet reciprocates the meaning and creating illogical paradigms, such as “For if there’s a volcano at Lisbon, it couldn’t be anywhere else. For it’s impossible for things not to be where they are” (Voltaire 27). Every time disaster strikes and Pangloss mentions Leibniz’s optimistic theory, he also mocks a flawed aspect of society “that cannot be helped.” By the end of Candide, Pangloss maintains his optimism, but readers will remember everything that had happened to him: the cruelty of the Inquisition, the unfairness of religious intolerance, and the torture of galleys. Voltaire uses optimism as a reminiscent of defects in life. Swift also uses optimism in “A Modest Proposal” as a parody of serious historical proposals. In order to prevent “the children of poor people in Ireland from being a burden to their parents or country, and for making them beneficial to the public” Swift uses math and science to resolve the poverty of the country, although this is an understatement as social troubles cannot be fixed scientifically. While eating babies is inhumane, this does remind the reader of how poor and helpless Ireland is and that measures should be taken to prevent ridiculous desperate actions like the proposed cannibalism. Thus, the optimism of Voltaire and Swift are simply fronts to disguise the bitterness and despair underneath.

Two main types of satire manifest in Candide. Horatian satire is in the funny scenes of the book, but it is Juvenalian satire that truly criticizes. Voltaire attacks specific groups of people. In Voltaire’s perspective, the Inquisition is ruthless, as the Inquisitors perform numerous auto-da-fe’s in Candide. While executing heretics out of duty is not terrible, Voltaire’s satire puts them in a sinister light. For example, Don Issachar invites Cunegonde to an auto-da-fe. He gave her a “very good seat” and “refreshments were served to the ladies between the masses and executions” (Voltaire 33). It’s true that executions as public events are historically accurate, but Voltaire’s addition of front-row seats and refreshments make the execution more of a celebrated occasion, implying that the Inquisitors enjoy killing. Swift does the same in “A Modest Proposal” when he mentions the landlords. The statement “the poorer tenants will have something valuable of their own, which by law made liable to distress and help to pay their landlord’s rent, their corn and cattle being already seized, and money a thing unknown” (Swift) addresses the vast difference in social classes of Ireland. It also implies that the landlords are greedy, taking away everything a tenant owns as rent – their crops, livestock, and now even their children. The grotesque of Ireland’s landlords and Lisbon’s Inquisition is clearly disapproving to the reader.

Although Voltaire and Swift use innocence to dramatize their points, they also mock purity. In Candide, the old woman is a daughter of a pope, which is comic juxtaposition, as the pope should remain a virtuous model to his people. Also the Reverend Father saved Baron of Thunder-ten-tronckh because he took a liking to the boy’s looks, implying homosexuality. Ironically, the most sinful of citizens in the book are Church officials and monks. This suggests that nothing is completely pure or complimentary, again mocking Leibniz’s optimism. In “A Modest Proposal,” the narrator says “it would greatly lessen the number of papists, with whom we are yearly overrun, being the principal breeders of the nation as well as our most dangerous enemies; and who stay at home on purpose… hoping to take advantage by the absence of so many good protestants” (Swift). He is clearly calling papists dangerous and that they are the reason why Protestants left the country. Status covers up a person’s inner motives, just like how satire covers up the meaning behind its words.

The goal of satire is to inspire reform. By Alexander Pope’s standards, Voltaire and Swift demonstrates their use of this device quite adequately; both writings criticize society through satire, so although readers laugh and stay entertained, they also consider the hidden meaning behind these carefully chosen words. We, as readers, should acknowledge the sharpness of the pen of satire and consider how to resolve poverty, violence, greed, and hypocrisy in our world today.

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Satirical Devices: Weapons Against the Errors of Society

Satires are literary forms that employ humor to ridicule certain beliefs, morals, or

figures. The most adept satires, as Alexander Pope proclaims, are able to slash through

these subjects quickly, cleanly, and thoroughly. Voltaire’s Candide, translated by Lowell

Bair, and Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” are two examples that follow Pope’s

assertions. They both masterfully command many different satirical devices to mock

similar themes in society, such as economic competition, religion, and moral integrity- all

in a comical fashion. However, compared to Voltaire’s vaguer and more symbolic uses of

satire, Swift applies his devices in a sharper and more direct manner, thereby fulfilling

Pope’s claims more completely.

Voltaire and Jonathan Swift, with the help of satirical devices such as situational

irony and comic juxtaposition to provide a stronger attack, both ridicule human greed and

the competition over money. In Candide, when Candide enters the land of Eldorado, he

sees gold and numerous other valuable jewels littered on the ground. However, the

citizens there find no significance in them and do not understand why others “have such

an incredible lust for the dirt and pebbles of [their] land” (62). Voltaire expertly depicts

Eldorado as the perfect society where unexpectedly, nobody fights over wealth and

precious stones are left untouched. He uses this situational irony to distinguish the

people in this land with the rest of the world. By saying how in the most ideal place, no

one finds value in money or wealth, Voltaire jabs at the world outside of Eldorado. He

mocks the ever present greed of humans and the economic rivalries between them that do

not exist in Eldorado. Likewise in “The Modest Proposal,” this theme of the struggle over

money is assailed. Throughout the short piece, Swift mentions how profitable selling a fat

infant to others for consumption is. He explains that there will be an economic

competition as an “honest emulation among the married women of which of them could

bring the fattest child to the market” develops. The mothers’ eagerness to sell their babies

and determination to raise them to be the plumpest is made hilarious with Swift’s use of

comic juxtaposition. He links these terms that definitely do not go together in both a

clever and mirthful way, causing the reader to burst into laughter. Swift then uses this

humor to his advantage to ridicule the desperation of numerous families during the years

of the Irish Famine in which he endured. Many Irish people in this time were forced to do

anything possible to earn the means to survive; how Swift mentions the women

competing against each other over the selling of babies is an exaggeration of this. Here,

Swift sharply and specifically mocks the horrible situations in his country, as well as

displaying his indignation toward the British. While Voltaire’s satirical device is more

subtle and symbolic, both Swift’s purpose and his use of the satiric device are clear,

emphatic, and to the point. Thus, “A Modest Proposal” better highlights the essence of

Alexander Pope’s words.

In both pieces of work, numerous satirical devices are utilized to scoff at the

theme of religion during each author’s respective time periods. After Candide kills Don

Issachar, a Jew, and the Inquisitor, Voltaire drastically contrasts their subsequent fates,

but with a neutral air. The Inquisitor “was buried in a beautiful church,” while “Issachar

was thrown into the garbage dump” (36). Here, Voltaire very simply and matter-of-factly

states the Jew’s outcome. His combination of detached tone and a bit of grotesque

forces the reader to laugh, turning the reader’s feelings of pity into humor. Voltaire, in

this way, pokes fun at the religious views toward Jews during his time. Similarly, Swift

uses verbal irony to accomplish this effect. When he lists the reasons why his proposal

of eating babies is effective, he mentions that it is also proficient in getting rid of Roman

Catholics. He clearly states that since “the number of popish infants is at least three to

one in this kingdom.” his plan will also “lessen the number of papists among [them].”

Swift captures the desire of many British Protestants in his time to remove the

overwhelming number of Irish Catholics, yet he does not believe in this since he is an

Irish Catholic himself. Through verbal irony, he ridicules the prejudice of the British

towards the oppressed Irish, along with their control over Ireland. Compared to Voltaire,

Swift supports Pope’s statement more appropriately; the definitiveness of his assaults

offers a direct, slicing attack against his rulers, whereas Voltaire’s criticisms of the

prejudice against Jews are aimed towards a broader extent in the world.

Furthermore, the morality of society is questioned through the satirists’ writing

and eloquence, but Voltaire uses his devices more abstractly. In Candide, when all the

women that Candide encounters relate their stories and tales of woe, they mention being

raped by someone. For example, the old woman says how her “flower that had been

reserved for the handsome Prince of Massa-Carrara (her lover) was ravished from [her]

by [a] pirate captain, a horrible Negro who thought he was doing [her] a great honor”

(40). By using the euphemism of “flower,” Voltaire is symbolizing the woman’s

virginity and innocence as a delicate, beautiful substance, while also shielding the reader,

if only temporarily, from the horror of the act. By mentioning how almost all the women

in Candide had been raped, Voltaire shows how, in general, society is constantly being

deprived of its purity through immoral and degenerate acts. With this satirical device, he

scorns the temporary beauty of the flower, knowing that in the world around him, it will

soon be stolen and corrupted. Voltaire jeers the integrity and goodness of humankind in

this way. Jonathan Swift, likewise, effectively adds in comic juxtaposition to make fun

of the values of society. When he introduces his concept of devouring babies for food, he

describes them as a scrumptious meal. He goes on by saying how “a child will make two

dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family dines alone, the fore or hind

quarter will make a reasonable dish.” This proposition employs grotesque in the noting

of the hind parts, and by placing an infant dish in a party-like, merry scene, Swift puts in

comic juxtaposition. Both of these devices make it impossible for readers not to snicker.

The humor that Swift creates is then used to mock the hopelessness of the situations in

his time, when even the most basic moral values are abandoned for the sake of enjoyment

purposes. He strongly ridicules the morality of society, especially the poverty-stricken

Ireland where he lives, with this device. Both Voltaire and Swift’s satires are knifelike

and articulate, tackling the many problems of morality, but Swift’s writing is a lot more

powerful. He offers a concrete attack on the abominable deeds that the poor Irish were

forced to commit in his time, demonstrating a deeper connection with Alexander Pope’s

quotes.

Candide and “A Modest Proposal” each presents a wide spectrum of satirical

devices, ranging from euphemism to detached tone to verbal and situational irony to

comic juxtaposition, which both Voltaire and Swift adroitly use. Through these devices,

they radiate an aura of comedy, whimsy, and humor that compels the readers to laugh.

This laughter, in turn, causes them to look at the subject being ridiculed from a new

perspective, from the author’s point of view. We, as readers, can sense the harsh

criticisms directed towards these ideas or things beneath the comical devices they control.

How each author employs these devices is powerful, but Swift writes with a more

specific intent and passion than Voltaire. Swift directly assaults a specific subject matter-

the horrible situations in Ireland- while Voltaire addresses more general things and is

more symbolic, as seen in his descriptions of Eldorado and the “flower” of the old

woman. Therefore, Alexander Pope’s comments and ideas concerning satire are

embedded more in Swift’s work, making it a stronger and a more effective satire.